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It seems that to allow better decisions on the selection of the superior genotypes, a complex of parametric and non-parametric stability statistics can be used as an additional tool. Hence, in each experiment, attention to the causes of GEI is very important and should be dissected. In this review, we tried to gather all statistical models and their related statistics that can help breeders for their breeding aims. Furthermore, we anticipate that the presented information regarding software and packages can help breeders to accelerate their data analysis and to compare different models and methods. In this experiment, AMMI-based stability parameters such as ASI, ASV, ASTAB, AVAMGE, Da, EV, FA, MASI, and SIPC showed a positive and significant correlation with mean yield. Moreover, they stated that although the mentioned parameters have a dynamic concept of stability, only some of them, such as SIPC, MASI, and MASV, were useful for the identification of stable high-yielding genotypes.

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Instead of using the sums of the market caps of all component stocks in the index’s numerator, the Dow takes the sum of the prices of its 30 component stocks. Thus, a one-point move in any one of the component stocks will cause the index to move by an equivalent number of points. As of July 2024, Microsoft (MSFT) has the largest market cap among stocks in the index, at about $3.2 trillion. Walmart (WMT), with a market capitalization of about $569 billion, has only a 0.63% weighting in the S&P.

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Note that it’s important to research these funds before buying, just as you’d research stocks. You don’t need to buy all of them, but having exposure to many helps build a diversified portfolio. We believe everyone should be able to make financial decisions with confidence. An equal-weighted index uses a proportional measure that gives the same importance to each stock in a portfolio or index fund regardless of company size. Further, the DJIA is a price-weighted index, so the largest weighted components are determined by their stock price rather than some fundamental measure.

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These tend to be good choices because they’re well diversified and allow you to lock in the historical growth of the domestic stock market. However, higher rewards come with greater risk, and dividend payments will likely be minimal. If you want investment income, a dividend fund like the SPDR S&P Dividend ETF is a good choice.

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• Apple’s weighting is determined by taking its market capitalization and dividing it by the total index market cap.
• In the static concept, a specific stable genotype has a performance that is unaffected by the environmental conditions.
• Furthermore, political stability is important because it allows countries to form alliances with others.
• The first theory of this methodology was described by Yan [76], and then numerous studies used this method and reported its advantage compared with other numerical methods.
• Raju [38] proposed a measure of stability that may be viewed as Wricke’s ecovalance (W2).
• Although the AMMI and BLUP models are the most commonly used models so far, each of them has some disadvantages.
• Becker [8] stated that this concept is analogous to the agronomic concept of stability, and most breeders prefer to apply it to select high yielding genotypes in their METs.
• Piepho [105] published the first SAS’s code, which only was able to calculate the Shukla’s stability variance (σ2), coefficient of variance (CV), and deviation from regression (Sdi2).

Investors buy shares of mutual funds directly from asset management companies, while shares in ETFs are purchased and sold through stock exchanges. In other words, if sums of independent, identically distributed random variables converge in distribution to some Z, then Z must be a stable distribution. Where IPCA1 and IPCA2 are the scores of the two first principal component interactions, respectively. Θ12 and θ22 are percentage sum of squares explained by the first two IPCAs effects, respectively. Where θn is the percentage sum of squares explained by the nth IPCA and N is the number of IPC that are retained in the AMMI model via the F-test.

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That is, it checks if the distribution of Y is different from the data on which the model was trained on. The United States is still widely considered to be the bastion of the Free World. Therefore, the United States is widely considered to be a politically stable country; however, this is something that has been tested significantly during the past few years. Efforts are being made to undermine free elections in the United States by casting doubt on whether the ballots that are cast are fair.

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• It’s this so-called insurance wrapper that enables stable value funds to deliver the higher yields of short-term bonds with the same low-risk of a money market mutual fund.
• According to the Plan Sponsor Council of America, more than 30% of plans lack stable value fund offerings, though this number shrinks for larger plans with at 1,000 participants.
• Progress in computer sciences and programming languages has resulted in the advent of various script codes and software that help breeders to analyze the big data sets in their experiments.
• It has more than $1.3 billion in total net assets and a 0.95% expense ratio, higher than any fund on this list.
• Matthew Schwartz, a certified financial planner (CFP) at Great Waters Financial in Richfield, Minn., suggests that stable value funds can be used as a “complement” to bond funds in your portfolio.
• Furthermore, because it is so stable, it is widely considered to be the center of Europe’s economy.
• Afzl et al. [51] reported that among non-parametric stability statistics, S(1), S(3), S(6,) and NP(4) with a dynamic concept are superior to evaluate high-yielding and stable safflower genotypes.

Furthermore, they were able to predict the genetic gain and accrue estimations of performance using the BLUP model. In a comparative study, Anuradha et al. [71] used a set of AMMI- and BLUP-based stability statistics to select stable and Stable Index high-yielding finger millet genotypes. Based on the obtained results, they stated that several statistics, such as ASV, ASTAB, AVAMGE, DA, Dz, EV, and FA, proved that all have equal potential in the identification of stable genotypes.

• Interest in AI stocks has also surged since late 2022, when ChatGPT launched.
• It is clear that the selection of genotypes for target environment(s) is affected by the GEI effect.
• But considering about 85% of the world’s population lives in developing countries, investors who have a long-term focus and are comfortable with volatility seriously may want to consider investing in this fund.
• Walmart (WMT), with a market capitalization of about $569 billion, has only a 0.63% weighting in the S&P.
• Two stability indices, the GGE Distance (GGED) and GGE Instability index (GGEIN), can be calculated by the GGE biplot model.
• So, it’s unsurprising that the SPDR S&P 500 Dividend ETF had much smaller losses than the S&P 500 in 2022 or that it underperformed compared to the S&P 500 in 2023 and the first four months of 2024.
• Several real estate investment trusts (REITs) are represented in the fund.

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Verma and Singh [67] showed that among a collection of parametric AMMI- and BLUP-based stability parameters, the superiority indices would provide reliable estimates of genotype performance. Among parametric methods, YSI and HMRPGV simultaneously provide a status of stability and productivity. Indeed, this parameter provides simultaneous selection for productivity and phenotypic stability in the context of a mixed model. Verma and Singh [67] identified the high-yielding and stable genotypes of wheat using HMRPGV parameter. Agyeman et al. [70] used the REML and BLUP model to test the stability of a set of maize genotypes in a MET trial.

Deciphering GE Interaction Using Different Statistical Methods

We ideally want the distribution of Y on the scoring dataset to be similar to it’s distribution on the training dataset. Abnormal changes in the distribution is marked by a large value of PSI. We are dealing with the largest land war in Europe since WWII, there is a global pandemic that continues to wreak havoc on most of the world, and there are autocrats who are seeking to throw us into a new Cold War.

The distribution

Where IPCAik is the score of the ith genotype (or environment) in the kth IPCA, and EPk is the amount of the variance explained by the kth IPCA. According to this statistic, a genotype with the lowest WAASB value is considered the most stable. Furthermore, for identifying highly productive and stable genotypes, we can also use a biplot based on the WAASB and grain yield. Indeed, in this way, all the estimated IPCA axes contribute to identifying the stability in a bi-dimensional plot. Is the mean grain yield of genotype ith; X¯.j is the mean grain yield of the environment jth; X¯.. Is the grand mean; SSGE is GEI sum square; and p and q are the numbers of genotypes and environments, respectively.

The two most commonly used parametrizations are the one above (Nolan’s “1”) and the one immediately below (Nolan’s “0”). Since the normal distribution, the Cauchy distribution, and the Lévy distribution all have the above property, it follows that they are special cases of stable distributions. Gauch and Moran [101] developed a Windows-based software that enables breeders to understand complex GEI and AMMI models.

As another non-parametric stability statistic, Fox et al. [30] suggested an ideal and simple parameter to superiority measure of general adaptability. This method is a stratified ranking approach that includes scoring the number of test environments in which each entry ranked in the LOW (bottom), MID (middle), and TOP (top) thirds of trial entries. The genotype that occurred mostly in the top third (high top value) was considered a widely adapted cultivar. The proportion of environments at which the genotype occurred in the each of these groups was determined to form the non-parametric measures of LOW, MID, and TOP, respectively.

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There are numerous reports in the literature on the applicability of this methodology in breeding programs. Hence, to show the importance of this graphical tool in various breeding programs, we have only highlighted some of the papers published during the last two years (2020–2022) for each crop (Table 2). The GGE biplot methodology is a graphical tool that superbly helps breeders to interpret the GEI in MET experiments. The first theory of this methodology was described by Yan [76], and then numerous studies used this method and reported its advantage compared with other numerical methods. The GGE biplot includes of a set of biplot interpretation models, whereby important questions regarding genotype and environment evaluation can be visually addressed [77]. The detailed description of this methodology and interpretation of each biplot can be found in the review of Yan and Tinker [77].

One-sided stable distribution and stable count distribution

Given the added cost of the insurance component in a stable value fund, the expense ratio may be higher than the cost of a comparable core bond fund. But if there’s a wide gap you need to decide if it’s worth the extra cost for the security a stable value fund provides. When looking to see if your 401(k) offers stable value funds, keep in mind that they come in a variety of names. Look for fund names that riff on terms such as principal preservation, capital accumulation or guaranteed income.

In the above equations, N and K are the number of environments and genotypes, respectively. Like the other S&P 500 funds on this list, this fund gives exposure to 500 of the largest U.S. companies, which make up about 75% of the U.S. stock market’s total value. NerdWallet, Inc. is an independent publisher and comparison service, not an investment advisor. Its articles, interactive tools and other content are provided to you for free, as self-help tools and for informational purposes only.

• Zali et al. [42] also proposed the absolute value of relative contribution IPCA as another statistic to measure of stability.
• Furthermore, for identifying highly productive and stable genotypes, we can also use a biplot based on the WAASB and grain yield.
• Our retirement system is way too confusing, and committing to saving money today that you won’t use for decades is not exactly easy either.
• However, Olivoto and Lucio [109] developed an R package “metan” for analyzing the GEI effect in plant breeding experiments.
• More money has been lost waiting to buy stocks than in holding stocks through downturns.

That’s important to be aware of because if you roll over a 401(k) to an individual retirement account (IRA) you won’t find a stable value fund offered by the brokerage where you have your IRA. The yield of the bonds held in a fund’s portfolio and the price of those bonds. All investments carry some risk, but S&P 500 index funds have been historically safe investments for the long term since the S&P 500 has always delivered positive returns over long periods.

The fund was up about 12% as of mid-May 2024, almost identical to the S&P 500 index’s year-to-date gains. Usually when the PSI is large, the separation between distributions become more pronounced. ‘Actual %’ points to the current data (that belongs to a more recent model scoring). Scoring runs means, the trained model being used to make predictions on batches of data over time. More popular use of PSI now is to keep a tab on the distribution of the model’s predictions during subsequent scoring runs.

• In addition to monitoring the scoring variable, you also want to calculate the PSI for features as well.
• This fact is not unexpected in that each stability parameter or statistic result shows a specialist ranking pattern for genotypes.
• Look for fund names that riff on terms such as principal preservation, capital accumulation or guaranteed income.
• Volatility profiles based on trailing-three-year calculations of the standard deviation of service investment returns.
• Among parametric methods, YSI and HMRPGV simultaneously provide a status of stability and productivity.
• If a country is deemed politically unstable, it will be difficult for other countries to take the leader of that country seriously.

Where λn and γin are the eigenvalue of the nth IPCA and the eigenvector value for the ith genotype. A genotype is considered to be more stable when the value of this statistic is lower. List of parametric and non-parametric stability statistics to analyze GEI effect in METs experiments. The investing information provided on this page is for educational purposes only.

This is clear that the last statistics will be less precise than W(AMMI), as is evident from the fact that they could not exploit the information in detail. In other words, the reliability of a stability statistic improves with the increase in the number of axes retained in the model. For EV1, N is one; for EVV, N is the number of IPC that retain in the AMMI model via validation procedures; and for EVF, N is the number of IPC that retain the AMMI model via F-test. Genotypes with the lowest values for these statistics are identified as the most stable.

In addition to bonds, a stable value fund also invests in insurance contracts that are issued by insurance companies or banks. For stable value funds the insurance is designed to make sure that no matter what is going on with interest rates, the value of the fund will not fall. Like a money market mutual fund, stable value funds aim to always maintain a net asset value (NAV) of $1.00 per share. A stable value fund is a low-risk investment (like a money market fund) that delivers higher yields (like a bond fund).

NerdWallet does not and cannot guarantee the accuracy or applicability of any information in regard to your individual circumstances. Examples are hypothetical, and we encourage you to seek personalized advice from qualified professionals regarding specific investment issues. Our estimates are based on past market performance, and past performance is not a guarantee of future performance. The S&P is instead a float-weighted index, meaning the market capitalizations of the companies in the index are used, but are adjusted by the number of shares available for public trading. The Dow Jones Industrial Average is a price-weighted index, while the S&P 500 is a market-cap-weighted index.

Ultimately, though, how much of your bond allocation you might want to move into stable value funds is a matter of personal choice, based on your risk tolerance. If you really hate the idea of any price volatility, you might want to invest more of the fixed income portion of your portfolio in a stable value fund than in a core bond fund. Stable value funds typically invest in short-term US government bonds and high-quality corporate bonds. The duration for stable value funds is typically around three years or so. The longer a fund’s duration, the more sensitive it is to interest rate moves.

Volatility profiles based on trailing-three-year calculations of the standard deviation of service investment returns. More money has been lost waiting to buy stocks than in holding stocks through downturns. Suppose blue was expected, and the red was actual, on plotting the distributions of the variables, one with larger PSI will have a larger gap between actuals and expected. In addition to monitoring the scoring variable, you also want to calculate the PSI for features as well. Because if a feature with strong predictive power is prone to rapid changes, we might rethink about having those features in the model.

First, it is very difficult for a government to support its citizens if there is no stability. If a country is considered politically unstable, the people who run the country are going to be more concerned about keeping themselves in power and less concerned about providing the necessary support for its people. Furthermore, political stability is important because it allows countries to form alliances with others. If a country is deemed politically unstable, it will be difficult for other countries to take the leader of that country seriously. Finally, political stability is also important from a safety perspective.

It is clear that the selection of genotypes for target environment(s) is affected by the GEI effect. For this reason, over the three past decades, numerous statistical models and approaches have been proposed to analyze GEI as well as identify the high-yielding and most stable genotypes. This fact is not unexpected in that each stability parameter or statistic result shows a specialist ranking pattern for genotypes. Some of these models are based on the genotypic contribution to GE variance, and some are based on G + GE (e.g., univariate or multivariate). Models and/or methods based on G + GE are more repeatable if they are calculated within mega-environments because mean yield is more repeatable.

The number of exchange-traded funds (ETFs) on the U.S. markets that track the index. S&P 500 ETFs have total assets under management (AUM) of about $1.12 trillion as of July 9, 2023. The fund has 1,995 holdings, with the largest concentrations in China, India, Taiwan, Brazil, and Saudi Arabia. Its benchmark index is the MSCI US Investable Market Real Estate 25/50 Index, which broadly tracks equity REITs in the U.S. Although the index includes a few real estate management and development companies, it consists mostly of equity REITs, which own and operate income-producing real estate. Dividend-paying stocks tend to be less volatile compared to the overall stock market.

Thus, we have collected statistics, as well as models and their equations, to explore these methods further. This review introduces a complete set of parametric and non-parametric methods and models with a selection pattern based on each of them. Furthermore, we have aligned each method or statistic with a matched software, macro codes, and/or scripts. Where μ, gi, and ei are the grand mean, the main effect of the genotype i, and the main effect of environment j, respectively. N, ρij, and εij indicate the number of IPCA retained in the AMMI model, the GEI residual, and the random error, respectively.